Minimal Intervention Minimally Invasive Dentistry Health And Social Care Essay

Minimal Intervention Minimally Invasive Dentistry Health And Social Care Essay Dentistry has very much shifted from an invasive to a more conservative approach over the years. This is due to an extended understanding of the nature of the disease and its process and discovering more effective methods of treatment instead of the traditional cut, drill and fill technique. Hence, the concept of minimally invasive and minimal intervention dentistry is now gaining popularity in modern dentistry. Minimal intervention is a modern medical approach to the treatment of caries focusing on prevention and detection of dental diseases at the earliest stage to avoid invasive treatment. When surgical intervention is necessary, minimally invasive techniques are being used widely to conserve as much tooth structure as possible and reduce risk of tooth fracture and pulpal problems. The minimally interventive approach involves reduction of cariogenic bacteria. It uses preventive measures such as topical fluorides, fissure sealants and patient education on oral hygiene. Early lesions are remineralised by non-interventive management, such as fluoride ions in saliva. The surgery carried out if necessary is minimally invasive and uses adhesive materials such as glass ionomer cements and adhesive composite systems. Innovative, modified cavity designs are used with possibly no drilling such as ART techniques. The resurgence of air abrasive technology with newer restorative materials has given a new dimension to minimally invasive dentistry. The micro-mechanical bonding of the restoration to the tooth structure through maximum preservation of healthy tooth structure negates the need to follow conventional G.V. Black cavity design parameters. Firstly, the difference between minimal intervention dentistry and minimally invasive dentistry need to be pointed out. Minimal intervention can be defined as a philosophy of professional dental care, with emphasis on early detection and earliest possible cure of the carious disease. This is followed by minimally invasive dentistry, which is the conservation of healthy tooth structure by using techniques that are patient friendly and cause minimal damage to the dental tissue and focuses on repair of irreversible damages caused by the disease and remineralisation.1 The concept of minimally invasive treatment emerged in dentistry in the early 1970s. One of the early examples of this is the application of diamine silver fluoride, which arrests the carious process and prevents the formation of any new caries. The silver ions in the diamine silver fluoride kill pathogenic organisms. Application is simple, cost effective and does not require any complex training to carry out.2 Several other examples are the development of preventive resin restorations (PRR) that were introduced in the 1980s, atraumatic restorative treatment (ART) which is the treatment of caries using only hand instruments and restoring with an adhesive filling material such as glass ionomer cement, and Carisolv in the 1990s which is a chemo-mechanical method that is efficient at removing carious dentine.3 The fundamental components of minimally invasive dentistry are the risk assessment of the disease; paying particular attention on early detection and prevention of caries, remineralisation of the enamel and dentine, use of a wide range of restorative materials and techniques that cause minimal intervention and resorting to surgery only if absolutely necessary. The following definition can be used to summarise the different aspects of minimally invasive dentistry: the maintenance and monitoring of oral health through continuous care, comprising comprehensive preventive management, a longitudinal approach to risk assessment and diagnosis of chronic disease, and a minimally interventive approach to any necessary operative intervention.4 Minimally invasive dentistry is not only restricted to the management of caries. The concept can be used in various dental applications such as the treatment of periodontal conditions, wear of teeth through erosion and attrition and management of chronic oral mucosal diseases such as xerostomia. The patient is very much involved in this type of approach to preserve and maintain their dentition and oral health. The patient takes responsibility for the daily care of their mouth and to control and prevent the risk of developing disease or progression of existing disease to the best of their ability. To do this, patients must have a good understanding of the disease process and know what to do to maintain good oral health and should be consistently motivated by members of the dental team. (REWORD FULLY)Minimal intervention suggests remineralisation of any enamel margin that is not yet cavitated as well as remineralisation of the lesion floor to avoid irritation of the pulp. Demineralised enamel around the margin of the lesion will be restored during the stabilisation phase of treatment aimed at elimination of the disease through application of fluoride. The floor of the lesion will be remineralised through the placement of a glass-ionomer cement for the restoration and this, at the same time will seal the margins against microleakage.14 The minimally invasive approach has been described by Tyas and co-workers as follows: Early caries diagnosis The classification of caries depth and progression using radiographs An assessment of individual caries risk Reduction in cariogenic bacteria, in order to decrease the risk of further demineralisation The arresting of active lesions The remineralisation and monitoring of non-cavitated arrested lesions The placement of restorations with minimal cavity designs Repair rather than replacement of defective restorations Assessment of disease management outcomes at regular intervals13 Patient Motivation (CUT EDIT COMPLETELYYYYYY) Preventive care is the foundation for minimally invasive dentistry. Preventive care is an essential factor of the minimal invasion technique, but is reliant on the patient carrying out effective oral hygiene techniques. The motivation for this is most likely to stem from educating the patient about the carious process so that they understand the importance of maintaining good oral health. The most active method of doing this is likely to be actual demonstration of the carious process to patients as such stimulation is likely to show them the full effects, and encourage them to take part in preventive care on their own. An important factor to take into account is that each patient will have a different caries risk and assessment of this risk is necessary before treatment can take place. Caries risk is much more significant if there has been previous history of caries risk. In fact the best way of addressing treatment, in my opinion is to use the risk score assessment method, treatment by this method ensures that management of the disease is specialist to the patient, so that the results are the most successful. A risk score is worked out and used to manage the disease in a specialised way based on the individual patient. Several different caries treatment techniques will be discussed. Firstly, Caries Management by Risk Assessment (CAMBRA), developed by Featherstone in university of San Francisco, This tool provides not only the assessment mechanism but also a set of interventions tailored to the disease level predicted.- havent changed words around!! Secondly, the technique of DIAGNOdent is lesion specific and detect lesions Some types of caries detection tools are lesion-specific and detect lesions at their earliest stages. DIAGNOdent is very useful in detecting demineralisation on certain surfaces, particularly the occlusal surfaces of teeth. Prevention stems from patient motivation to carry out effective oral hygiene techniques at home and maintain good oral health. Educating patients about dental caries in addition to talking about cavities is an important factor in motivating the patient as when they have a better understanding of the carious process they are more inclined to maintain good oral health to prevent such disease. The ability to demonstrate the caries process to patients might be the best motivational tool. If patients could see the process actually happening before cavitation occurs, they might be more likely to practice appropriate oral hygiene methods at home. It is first necessary to assess the patients caries risk. One of the most important predictors of caries risk is the history of caries. Featherstone and colleagues at the University of California, San Francisco have developed and tested a caries assessment tool called. This tool provides not only the assessment mechanism but also a set of interventions tailored to the disease level predicted. Some types of caries detection tools are lesion-specific and detect lesions at their earliest stages. DIAGNOdent is very useful in detecting demineralisation on certain surfaces, particularly the occlusal surfaces of teeth. DIFOTI which stands for digital imaging fibre optic transillumination uses visable light between and through the teeth to see shadows that might be indicative of caries or other defects in the tooth structure. Quantitative light-induced fluorescence (QLF) scans the entire surface of the tooth and detects caries lesions at their earliest phases. By superimposing the lesion at two separate stages, it can assess the status of remineralisation. This is an example of psychological effect of caries management by risk assessment and early detection. A technology such as QLF allows the patient and practitioner to work together to achieve remineralisation. This empowers the patient and shows them the important of their role combined with professional recommendations in reversing the process before its cavitation stage. (Motivation is key hence patient more likely to follow and successful outcome). An increase in patient awareness of treating disease has developed a new kind of dentistry. Only at such an early stage can the patients focus shift from restorative dentistry to disease management.15 GV Blacks Approach(REWORD REARRANGE ORDER) In 1895, G.V Black introduced the concept of extension for prevention. The principle of extension for prevention is that not only must the lesion be included in the outline, but any adjacent areas not at present carious but likely to do so in the near future should also be included to reduce the risk of subsequent carious recurrence near the cavity margin. The principles of cavity design, as described by G.V. Black underpinned operative dentistry for almost a century. As a consequence of adhesive techniques and new understanding of carious process, Blacks principles have been revisited. Eg: Blacks concept of extension for prevention has been replaced by prevention of extention.17 The preparation of a retentive lock or key in the occlusal aspect of posterior teeth in order to prevent displacement of non-adhesive amalgam restorations result in substantial loss of tooth structure, weakening the tooth. The purely surgical approach to caries control as taught by Black is now recognised as being too invasive and destructive. It is inefficient as it does not eliminate the cause of the disease and also leads to a continuing process of replacement dentistry, enlarging the cavity further. The restoration is subjected to an increasingly heavy load and the tooth gets weaker. The cavity designs proposed by Black required geometric precision with sharp line angles, flat floors and removal of all signs of demineralised tooth structure. The fundamental problem with Blacks classification is that it proposes a cavity design regardless of the size and extent of the lesion. Therefore, there will be a standard amount of tooth structure removed whether it is involved with the disease or not. This results in the cavity preparation being larger that it needs to be. Also extension for prevention increases the areas for access of microbes, resulting in even more tooth structure being removed to remove the secondary caries.18 New Cavity Classification The concept of minimal intervention cavity designs is now being used as a replacement to the traditional Blacks classification. The new classification will identify both the position of a lesion on the exposed crown of a tooth and the extent to which it has progressed. It is not needed to specify a particular design for the cavity that needs to be prepared. (Table 1: Mount GJ, 2009) The above table shows a new cavity classification that has been developed by Graham Mount which takes into account the changes in caries activity so is classified by size as well as site: Site 1 lesions are similar to pit and fissure class I restorations and other defects on smooth enamel surfaces. Site 2 lesions are those at contact areas between any pair of teeth. Site 3 lesions are those originating close to the gingival margin including exposed root surfaces. 13, 14 As the size of the lesion extends so does the complexity of the restoration. The sizes that can be identified are as follows: Size 0 the initial lesion at any site that has not yet had surface cavitation so may be possible to heal it. Size 1 the smallest minimal lesion requiring operative intervention. Size 2 a moderate sized cavity. There is still adequate sound tooth structure to maintain integrity of the remaining crown. Size 3 cavity needs to be modified and enlarged to provide some protection for the remaining crown from the occlusal load. Size 4 cavity is now extensive following loss of a cusp from a posterior tooth or an incisial edge from an anterior.14 Cavity preparation One of the most important aims of minimally invasive techniques is to preserve as much sound tissue as possible. The smaller the cavity preparation, the better the performance of the restoration placed within it. It is important to excavate only the irreparable, diseased enamel and dentine, keeping the cavity as small as possible. The cavity walls have to be modified in order to restore the cavities with a suitable adhesive material that can strengthen and support the remaining tooth structure, promote remineralisation and ideally have antibacterial activity. Any remaining bacteria need to be sealed off so that their nutrient supply is cut off and the carious process is arrested. When carrying out the stages of caries removal, it is imperative to follow a minimally invasive approach, and for this to be successful a good knowledge of the chemistry and handling of dental materials is essential. There are many different approaches for proximal cavity preparation, with focus on preserving as much tooth substance as possible.5 Several techniques will be discussed as followed. Sonic Techniques The sonic oscillating, SONICflex system is used in minimally interventive occlusoproximal preparations. It was developed to cut small proximal cavities and used a high frequent oscillating preparation instruments in an air-driven oscillating handpiece. Damage to adjacent teeth is minimised by the use of safe-sided diamond coated, round ended preparation tips. SONICflex can be used in situations where access is difficult, such as proximal sections. The SONICflex PrepGold and SONICflex PrepCeram instruments are designed for minimally interventive gold and ceramic inlay preparations. Figure 1 preparation with SONICflex Prep Ceram (Wilson NHF, 2007) Figure 2 Preparation with SONICflex Prep Gold (Wilson NHF, 2007) Sonic instrumentation allows proximal beveling with limited risk of damage to the adjacent tooth surfaces.4 Air Abrasion Bioactive Glasses The air abrasion technology was developed by Dr Robert Black in 1945 and was successfully introduced in 1951 with the Airdent air abrasion unit by S.S. White. Air abrasion can be described as a pseudo-mechanical, non-rotary method of cutting hard dental tissue where the tooth surface is bombarded with high velocity desiccated abrasive particles, transferring kinetic energy to the tooth surface, which is micro-chipped away. (REWORD) Studies have shown that bonding of enamel and dentine surfaces that have been prepared with air abrasion are much better than those prepared with conventional carbide burs or acid etching.6 Air abrasion produces no heat, vibration, pressure, pain or noise and extent of hard tissue damage is far less than that accomplished using rotary instruments, therefore making air-abraded hard tissue surface more favourable to adhesive bonding. It works by using a stream of aluminium oxide particles produced from compressed air. The abrasive particles strike the tooth with high velocity and removes a small amount of the tooth structure. Efficiency of removal is relative to the hardness of the tissue or material being removed and the operating parameters of the air abrasion device. (REWORD) A number of parameters such as air pressure, operating distance, powder flow rate, particle size, diameter of the nozzle tip and time of exposure vary the amount of hard tissue removal and depth of penetration. The safety for clinical use of alumina was supported by the fact that the particles are large enough to exceed the upper limit for respirable airborne pollutants.4 Air pressure usually varies from 40 to 160 psi and most common particle sizes are 27 or 50 micrometres in diameter. A high powder flow rate will allow more particles to abrade the tooth faster. Operating distances from the tooth range from 0.5 to 2 mm. Applications of air abrasion include caries removal, removal of superficial enamel defects, detection of pits and fissures, removal of pit and fissure surface stain, preparation of tooth structure for the placement of composites and ceramics, surface preparations of abfractions and abrasions, removal of existing restorations and as an adjunct to the conventional handpiece bur.7 Air polishing is an alternative type of air abrasion that removes plaque and surface stains effectively by using sodium bicarbonate powder instead of alumina. Advantages of air abrasion include majority of patients do not need local anaesthetic, discomfort can be managed by reducing air pressure and patients are less anxious with the sound of air abrasion compared to a turbine drill. Air abrasion has a large number of indications but several contraindications are that it cannot be used to remove large amalgam restorations and is not efficient for removal of gross caries because it does not cut substances that are soft. It also produces a round cavity that is not suitable for preparations requiring sharp margins.13 Bioactive glass particles are recognised for their bone inductive properties and there is evidence that shows that bioglass particles can interact with dentine through the formation of a hydroxyl carbonate apatite layer which can provide an effective interactive seal. Bioglass particles can be used for extrinsic stain removal, desensitisation of exposed cervical dentine, removal of selective demineralised enamel and composite removal. They have the ability of discriminating incipient lesions from sound enamel, treating them selectively and minimally. Chemomechanical Treatment Chemomechanical treatment is a gel-based dentine caries removal system and remains the least interventive approach to the removal of carious dentine. Carisolv gel is used with this system and has the advantages of limiting the need for anesthesia, preserves dental tissues, reduces the use of rotary instruments and is effective in controlling patient anxiety. Carisolv gel is applied into the cavity and subsequently the carious tissue is removed using specially designed hand instruments. The Carisolv hand instruments scrape away the material dissolved by the gel, hence preserving remineralisable layers of dentine and underlying sound dentine. Carisolv gel consists of a 0.1% hypochlorite-based alkaline gel with amino acids. The mechanism of the gel is that it dissolves infected dentine that has undergone proteolytic breakdown of collagen, causing further collapse of the collagen network for easy removal with hand instruments. The gel has no detrimental effect on healthy, hard dental tissue. Indications include the treatment of anxious patients, root caries and deep lesions of caries.4 Chemomechanical methods of caries removal is considered to be less painful compared to the use of rotary instruments.8 It is a well-accepted method by patients, despite the prolonged time taken to carry out the treatment. It is a self-limiting technique only removing infected dentine so it is not possible to cut away too much of the tooth structure.13 Polymer Cutting Instruments Metal and diamond burs are not able to discriminate between infected and healthy dentine. Polymer instruments have been designed to differentiate between these two structures as it is able to remove softened dentine but cannot cut the hard, healthy dentine. These instruments have the potential to prepare selected cavities without the need for local anaesthesia.9 Sound enamel has a Knoop hardness of approximately 400 and for dentine is 70-90. Carious dentine has a much lower Knoop hardness between 0-30. This allows a cutting instrument with a Knoop hardness of around 50 to be developed, which is halfway between carious and sound dentine. The polymer instrument remains largely intact when removing carious dentine but when it hits sound dentine, it is visably worn away therefore cannot remove or damage the sound dentine. This also means that it does not operatively expose vital odontoblasts and therefore has a limited capacity to cause pain and discomfort. Consequently, it may be possible to complete caries removal without having to use local anaesthesia.10 Stepwise Excavation Atraumatic Restoration Technique (ART) Stepwise excavation and ART are modern applications of the minimally invasive approach of managing deep cavitated carious lesions. Both techniques use simple hand instruments such as excavators to remove the necrotic caries-infected dentine and also some caries-affected dentine.5 The reasons for using hand instruments instead of electric rotating handpieces is that it requires minimal cavity preparation that conserves sound tooth tissues and cause less trauma to teeth. Also, the need for local anaesthesia is reduced as the patient will not have to endure as much pain. The stepwise excavation technique involves at different intervals. Carious tissue was removed and a thin layer of calcium hydroxide was placed followed by a temporary restoration. The calcium hydroxides primary purpose is to act as a protective seal of exposed dentine surface. It is a strong alkali so stimulates secondary dentine formation in very deep cavities. No final excavation is performed in the first visit. Re-entry and final excavation is made at a later date. There are several variations to the stepwise excavation technique such as Magnusson and Sundell placed a zinc oxide-eugenol cement temporary restoration and carried out the final excavation four to six weeks later. In 1962, Law and Lewis placed calcium hydroxide and an amalgam restoration and re-entry was made six months later. More recently developed ART techniques restore the cavity with chemically adhesive GIC which forms a better seal, instead of the traditional amalgam and also releases fluoride which prevents and arrests caries.5 When the restoration is removed, arrested caries-affected dentine which is darker and harder is exposed and tertiary dentine is also deposited. In the excavation procedure, all the undermining enamel has to be removed to allow easy access to the carious dentine along the enamel-dentine junction. 1 mm of carious dentine is left behind on the pulpal wall and re-entry takes place after a year and the final excavation is carried out. By removing infected dental tissue in deep cavities, excavation is at a very close level to the pulp. By using the stepwise excavation, pulpal exposure is avoided and any pulpal complications are minimised.11 (Figure 3: Bjorndal L, 2008) Figure 3 show the less invasive stepwise excavation procedure. The red zones indicate where plaque is found. A closed lesion environment before first excacation (a) and after (b) followed by application of calcium hydroxide material and a provisional restoration(c). During the treatment interval the demineralized dentine has clinically changed into signs of slow lesion progress, seen by a darker demineralized dentin (d). After final excavation (e) the permanent restoration is made (f).11 Restorative Materials At present there are several restorative materials that are compatible with a minimal interventive philosophy such as resin composites, giomers, ormocers, compomers, resin-modified and traditional glass-ionomer cements. The use of adhesive techniques such as resin composites removes the need of occlusal keys and undercuts, therefore conserving more tooth substance.13 Amalgam (REWORD) Amalgam is one of the oldest direct restorative materials still in use. It is an alloy of several metals including silver, tin, copper, zinc and a small amount of mercury. Amalgam is not compatible with the minimal intervention philosophy despite its proven durability. It requires an undercut to retain the restoration macro-mechanically; hence more tooth structure is removed or damaged, ultimately weakening the remaining tissue. Consequently amalgam is not recommended for the initial management of lesions of caries and where a minimally interventive approach is indicated.(REWORD) It is possible for the amalgam to be bonded to teeth with dentine adhesive systems, reducing the need for undercuts. These are called bonded amalgam restorations. Modern techniques for cavity preparation such as air abrasion are not well suited for the removal of amalgam and there is concern for the levels of mercury released when amalgam is abraded. Air abrasion of amalgam for one minute released mercury vapour four times in excess of the OSHA standard.12 Resin Composites (REWORD COMPLETELY) Resin composites are glass filler particles in a resin matrix. Composites for anterior and posterior teeth require different properties. Materials with a higher filler: resin ratio are recommended for posterior restorations, whereas materials with more resin matrix are used for anterior restorations. This is because materials with a higher filler: resin ratio tend to be stronger, more wear resistant and shrink less when cured. A high concentration of filler particles makes the material more opaque and is more difficult to finish. On the other hand, materials with a higher filler: resin particle ratios are more easily finished and translucent so better suited for anterior teeth restorations. However they shrink more when cured. All resin systems contract on curing. The concept of soft-start polymerisation has been shown to produce better marginal adaptation which may lead to reduced interfacial leakage. Also the net overall shrinkage is less. Composite restorative materials follow the minimally invasive concept as they can be used in conjunction with a dental adhesive system with minimal tooth preparation. Another advantage is that light-curing provides command cure which allows for immediate finishing and polishing. The restoration, if placed correctly in suitably prepared teeth, seals the tooth restorative interface, reducing interfacial leakage. It is possible to add material to cured increments, which allows for incremental build-up and further additions at a later date. Disadvantages include shrinkage typically 2-3% which can disrupt the marginal adaptation of the restoration. Bonding to dentine still remains problematic and water absorption with surface and marginal staining may occur after some years. Flowable composites are used in the repair of marginal defects in restorations and as a liner. They have a low filler: resin ratio and suffer relatively large percentage shrinkage when they are cured, but have the advantage of easy of adaptation to preparations. Compomers Compomers are made predominately from resin composite with the addition of a polyacid-modified molecule, which makes the material more hydrophilic. Compomers are initially light-cured, but subsequently absorb water, allowing for an acid-base reaction to set the polyacid-modified molecule. Initially the material shrinks due to polymerisation contraction but expands subsequently as water is absorbed. Compomers are easy to handle and release fluoride. they are resin-made so a dentine bonding agent is required. Properties are similar to composites but wear and fracture resistance are less than for composite. Glass-Ionomer Cements (GICs) and resin-modifed GIC (RMGICs) GICs are used for cervical restorations, fissure sealants and proximal lesions in anterior teeth. RMGICs are indicated for bonded-base restorations, temporary restorations especially between appointments in endodontic therapy. They are also used in high caries risk patients and atraumatic restoration treatments. GICs not indicated for definitive restorations in adult dentitions expect for the treatment of root caries. The advantages include self-adhesion to the tooth tissue through bio reacting with the tooth surface and the release of fluoride and other ions. They perform well in low-stress areas. It can also be rechargeable, therefore taking up fluoride from the environment.20 The disadvantages of GICs include poor fracture strength and wear rates. They are also quite difficult to handle but this can be overcome by adding resin to create resin-modified glass ionomer cements which is easier to place and has improved aesthetics. Traditional GICs are more opaque and less aesthetic than RMGICs and also cause more marginal chipping. Exogenous stain build-up is common with traditional GICs.20 Giomers Giomers are a relatively new type of restorative material. The name giomer is a hybrid of the words glass ionomer and composite. They have properties of both glass ionomers such as fluoride release and recharge, and of resin composites such as aesthetics and biocompatibility. Therefore the material combines advantages of both materials. The material is composed of prereacted glass-ionomer particles within a resin matrix. Ormocers Ormocer stands for Organically Modified Ceramic. It is a three dimensionally cross-linked copolymer. Their chemistry is based on a polyvinylsiloxane backbone. Ormocers are fully polymerised materials. Ormocers undergoes 1.97% volume shrinkage which is lowest value recorded so far for a resin based filling material. Due to their cross-linking and chemical nature, Ormocers ensure that it is a highly biocompatible filling material. Their advantages compared to conventional composites are outstanding biocompatibility, minimal shrinkage, resistance to masticatory loading and aesthetics resembling natural teeth. Examples of minimally invasive procedures Sealants A Dental sealant is a thin protective covering made of resin that is applied to the chewing surfaces of posterior teeth to prevent the formation of cavities. It is a primary preventive procedure. If the sealant is placed properly it does not require any cutting of the tooth structure. Placement of sealants in suspect teeth within s

How Does The Bus Topology Works Information Technology Essay

How Does The Bus Topology Works Information Technology Essay The bus topology is a series of nodes which are all connected to a backbone. Bus networks typically work well for smaller networks and use Ethernet cables for networking. It is easy to maintain and troubleshoot in a bus network. How does the BUS topology works : The bus topology connects each computer on the network into something called the segment trunk. A bus is usually referred to a cable that connects end to end and this is used to transmit the signals from one end to the other end. At every end a terminator is placed so that it understands in which direction the data is traveling and also the terminator is used to absorb the signals Figure 1 : BUS topology ii. Star topology : A star topology is based on a central node which acts as a hub. A star topology is common in homes networks where all the computers connect to the single central computer using it as a hub. How does the Star topology works : A star network features a central connection point called a hub that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computers network access and not the entire LAN. Figure 2 : Star topology iii. Ring topology : A ring network is circular in shape and every node will have one node on either side of it. The ring topology is rare to come across because of its limitations. If there is damaged cable or breakdown in any one of the nodes then the entire network stops functioning. How does the Ring topology works : A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet. Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link. Figure 3 : Ring topology iv. Mesh topology : Mesh topology is a group of nodes which are all connected to each other and many types of connections are possible in a mesh topology How does the Mesh topology works : In a Mesh Network every node is connected to other nodes on the network through hops. Some are connected through single hops and some may be connected with more than one hope. While the data is traveling on the Mesh Network it is automatically configured to reach the destination by taking the shortest route which means the least number of hops. Figure 4 : Mesh topology v. Tree topology: The tree topology is a group of star networks put together. The only difference is that the tree topology follows a hierarchy in structure and the entire tree is dependent on this hierarchy. How does the Tree topology works : Among all the Network Topologies we can derive that the Tree Topology is a combination of the bus and the Star Topology. The tree like structure allows you to have many servers on the network and you can branch out the network in many ways. Figure 5 : Tree topology Task -1 (b) The advantages and disadvantages for each medium of network topology. Some of medium are cat5, cat6, fiber optic, coaxial cable etc. Cat5 : Category 5 cable is a twisted pair high signal integrity cable type often referred to as Cat5 or Cat-5. Most cables are unshielded, relying on the twisted pair design for noise rejection, and some are shielded. Figure 6 : Cat5 Cable This category of UTP cable is the most commonly used cable in present day networks. It consists of four twisted pairs and is used in those Ethernet networks that run at the speed of 100 Mbps. Category 5 cable can also provide a higher speed of up to 1000 Mbps. Cat6 : Category 6 cable, commonly referred to as Cat-6, is a cable standard for Gigabit Ethernet and other network protocols that are backward compatible with the Category 5/5e and Category 3 cable standards. Compared with Cat-5 and Cat-5e, Cat-6 features more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise. Figure 7 : Cat6 Advantages : Cat 6 will be very effective in the residential market to support higher Internet access speeds. The better balance of cat6 will make it easier to meet the residential EMC requirements compared to cat 5e cabling. The growth of streaming media applications to the home will increase the need for higher data rates which are supported more easily and efficiently by category 6 cabling. Disadvantages : It transfer data in Gigabytes per seconds. It is costly. Fiber optic cable : Fiber optic cables are made up of glass, and they transmit data in the form of light, unlike the copper wire that uses electrical signals. A reflective coating that allows light beams to travel without outer interference covers the glass cable. Figure 8 : Fiber optic cables The advantages of Fiber optic cables are that signals can be sent at a much higher speed and to very long distances without the risk of outer interference. There are more advantages of fiber optic cables are : System Performance Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity Lower signal attenuation (loss) Immunity to Electrical Noise No crosstalk Lower bit error rates Signal Security Difficult to tap Overall System Economy Low per-channel cost Lower installation cost Disadvantages of fiber optic cable : One problems with optical fibers is that the electrical information signals must be converted (modulated) to light at the transmitter and then down converted (demodulated) from light back to electrical signals at the receiver. The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install and are more fragile than metal wire and are more difficult to split. Coaxial cable : Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer called the shield, and finally covered with a thin insulating layer on the outside. Figure 9 : Coaxial cable Advantages of coaxial cables are : Coax has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which allows for much greater throughput. Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth systemwide, and it also offers greater bandwidth for each channel. Because it has greater bandwidth per channel, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice, data, and even video and multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity. Disadvantages of coaxial cables are : More expensive than twisted pairs and is not supported for some network standards (eg token ring), its also very bulky and also has high attenuation so would have the need to implement repeaters etc. Task 1 (c) From our above investigation and determination that BUSS topology is too much vulnerable. Ring topology creates too much redundant link. MASS topology is more expensive and difficult to install. So Star topology will be the best solution for the network of the headquarter of police department in Townsville. Because, according to our investigation here are the key points. Good performance; Reliable (if one connection fails, it doesnt affect others); Easy to replace, install or remove hosts or other devices. There are several medium we have found but we have decided to use Cat6 cable as medium for this network. TASK 2 Task 2 (a) After investigate I have many internet service in my country. The Internet Services are : Broadband Internet Service, Fiber Optic Internet Services, Radio Link Internet Services, WiFi etc. Broadband Internet Service : Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband, is a high data rate Internet access-. Fiber Optic Internet Service : An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Radio Link Internet Service : Radio Link Protocol (RLP) is an automatic repeat request (ARQ) fragmentation protocol used over a wireless (typically cellular) air interface WiFi Technology : Wi-Fi works with no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio frequency (RF) technology, a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with radio wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is created that then is able to propagate through space. The cornerstone of any wireless network is an access point (AP). But I think it will be best to use Fiber Optic Internet Services for the police department of Townsville. Because, it has so many advantages and this may be the best way for the police department of Townsville. Task 2 (b) The police department in Townsville needs an own server to maintain their all information that are so confidential. If they use other server then that confidential data may be lost. Server needs to high configured PC with high speed Internet speed, cooling system (because, all time the server will be opened), a big storages and finally it requires the best and secure operating system such as Linux or Windows 200 Server. There are different people in the headquarter house who needs different type of internet connection based on their designation and responsibility. Here is a comparison list of each person to show what internet connection is required for whom. The Chief Constable The Chief Constable, who is responsible for the policing of that area, needs more powerful configuration than others. He needs 2 MBPS internet speed. The assistant Chief Constable The assistant Chief Constable assist to the Chief Constable and he needs higher configuration than others but lower than the Chief Constable a little bit. It needs 1 MBPS internet speed. District Commander The policing in each district is the responsibility of a district command. They need 512KBPS internet speed. Deputy District Commander The deputy district command assist to the district commander. They need 512 KBPS internet speed. For sergeants and constables Each district has three sergeants and twenty four constables allocated to it. And they need also 512 KBPS internet speed. The police officers Each district has five police car to patrolling the area and responding the incidents. The police officer also patrols the local area on foot. The police officer needs 512 KBPS for it. A large office Each district has its own large office within the headquarters building and requires a workstation for each district commander and for each deputy district commander. They need 512KBPS for their job. Detective Chief Inspector They need 1 MBPS internet speeds also. Because, they need to search, make a report, send and get any information easily and quickly. Detective Inspector The detective inspector assist to the Detective Chief Inspector. So they also heed 1 MPBS internet speeds. The civilian staff The police department also has twenty civilian staff, responsible for general administration work including operating the telephone system and general administration duties. They need 512 KBPS internet speed. Task 2 (c) There are so many Internet Service Provider (ISP) in Bangladesh. Such as : Accesstel.net : http://www.accesstel.net/home.php it has the best package that name Corporate High-Speed Internet. Bangladesh Online : http://www.bol-online.com/ Bijoy Online Limited : http://www.bijoy.net/ Grameen Cyber Net Limited : http://www.gclweb.net/ Dhaka Com : http://www.dhakacom.com/ Task 2 (d) I recommend to use Accesstel.net for Internet Service Providers (ISP). Because, they have more facilities with low price. TASK-3 Task-3 (a) Characteristics of Private Mobile Radio (PMR) : Provides, for example, taxi firms with local radio communications on a single channel. Communications are half duplex, so this requires strict operating procedures to control conversation (for example use of key words such as over and out). Requires a license from the appropriate government department. Bandwidth and channel availability is limited. Coverage area is limited. Disadvantages of PMR : Lack of privacy as all communications take place on a single channel that anyone with a suitable radio receiver can listen to. Coverage limitations (25 km radius max). Generally, PRM services have only one base station covering the area of operation of the company. If a mobile unit exceeds these boundaries communications are lost. Public Trunked Mobile Radio (PTMR) : PTMR was originally designed for voice communications but it can also support data. It communication area half duplex. Characteristics of PTMR : The prime application suited to PTMR is vehicle fleet communications. Half duplex voice communication is provided, using over and out etc. to control conversation flow. Some PTMR radio sets have a data port, usually RS-232. Data is transmitted at 1.2 Kbit/s. Task-3 (b) Legal requirements are : Requirements of frequencies For omni directional and point to multi-point system Sl Symbol Frequency Range (Lower Limit Exclusive, Upper Limit Inclusive) 1 VLF 3~30 KHz 200.00 2 LF 30~300 KHz 200.00 3 MF 300~3000KHz 200.00 4 HF 3~30 MHz 300.00 5 VHF 30~300 MHz 100.00 6 UHF1 300~1000 MHz 50.00 7 UHF2 1000~3000 MHz 30.00 8 SHF 3~16 GHz 20.00 9 SHF2 EHF1 16~65 GHz 10.00 10 EHF2 65~300 GHz 1.00 1 VLF 3~30 KHz 200.00 2 LF 30~300 KHz 200.00 3 MF 300~3000KHz 200.00 4 HF 3~30 MHz 300.00 5 VHF 30~300 MHz 100.00 6 UHF1 300~1000 MHz 50.00 7 UHF2 1000~3000 MHz 30.00 8 SHF 3~16 GHz 20.00 9 SHF2 EHF1 16~65 GHz 10.00 10 EHF2 65~300 GHz 1.00 1 VLF 3~30 KHz 200.00 2 LF 30~300 KHz 200.00 3 MF 300~3000KHz 200.00 4 HF 3~30 MHz 300.00 5 VHF 30~300 MHz 100.00 6 UHF1 300~1000 MHz 50.00 7 UHF2 1000~3000 MHz 30.00 8 SHF 3~16 GHz 20.00 9 SHF2 EHF1 16~65 GHz 10.00 10 EHF2 65~300 GHz 1.00 1 VLF 3~30 KHz 200.00 2 LF 30~300 KHz 200.00 3 MF 300~3000KHz 200.00 4 HF 3~30 MHz 300.00 For UHF, M/W, EHF point to point links per year basis Sl Frequency Range (Lower Limit Exclusive, Upper Limit Inclusive) 1 UHF 1 ~3 GHz 2 M/W 3 GHz ~16 GHz 3 M/W 16 GHz ~65 GHz 4 M/W 65 GHz ~100 GHz 5 Above 100 GHz Requirements of license Srl Category of Licence License Remarks 01 International Gateway (IGW) Services 4 including BTCL 02 Interconnection Exchange (ICX) Services 3 including BTCL 03 International Internet Gateway (IIG) Services 2 including BTCL 04 Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) 2 05 Cellular Mobile Telecom Operator 6 including Taletalk 06 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) Operator 14 including BTCL 07 Nationwide Telecommunication Transmission Network (NTTN) Services Provider 2 08 Nationwide Optical Fibre Telecommunication Transmission Network 1 09 Pre-Paid Card Service Operator 2 10 Vehicle Tracking Services 3 11 Internet Protocol Telephony Service Provider Nationwide 26 12 Internet Protocol Telephony Service Provider Central Zone 4 13 Internet Protocol Telephony Service Provider Zonal 3 14 Internet Service Provider Nationwide 101 15 Internet Service Provider Central Zone 81 16 Internet Service Provider Zonal 54 17 Internet Service Provider Category A 102 18 Internet Service Provider Category B 16 19 Internet Service Provider Category C 5 20 VSAT User 53 21 VSAT Provider 14 22 VSAT Provider with HUB 5 23 Call Centre 315 24 Hosted Call Centre 58 25 Hosted Call Centre Service Provider 47 26 International Call Centre 2 Total Number of Present Licenses 925 Task-3 (c) Requirements of some equipment are : Space/Ground/Land; House/Room; Wireless; Handsets; Cable; Transmitter etc. The estimation cost for everything to setup this system Frequency cost 200 taka or more for per Khz in per year. Equipment cost around 1000000 taka. So, total estimating cost around 10,000000 or above. Task-3 (d) Limitation of PMR : Lack of privacy; Coverage limitations (25 km radium max); Congestion, as many users are assigned to a single channel. Limitation of PTMR : It has time limitation, if large amounts of data have to be transmitted. Task-3 (e) I recommend using Private Mobile Radio (PMR) to set up voice communication. Because, it has not noise, cost efficiency, frequency rate good, international standard, Confidentiality etc. TASK 4 Task 4 (a) The main equipment that would be installed are : Telephone instruments. Private Branch Exchanges (PBXs). Key Telephone Systems (KTSs). Automatic Call Distribution (ACD) systems. Voice Processing Systems. Telephone Answering Machines. Telephone Call Information Loggers (CIL). Facsimile Machines. Modems. Local Area Network (LAN) Bridges. Local Area Network (LAN) Routers. Multiplexers. Task 4 (b) The available features for this systems are : PBXs A private branch exchange (PBX) is a telephone exchange that serves a particular business or office, as opposed to one that a common carrier or telephone company operates for many businesses or for the general public. PBXs are also referred to as: * PABX private automatic branch exchange * EPABX electronic private automatic branch exchange Figure 10 How PBX works Features of PBXs : Account Code: Account code for dialing calls Alternate Number Ring: Assign a different number to same line that rings with a different cadence Attendant: Main Operator extension Autodialer: Support multiple autodialing techniques Automatic Attendant PBX Automatic Line Selection Automatic Hold PBX Automatic Redial Automated directory: Automatically connect to an extension by name Automatic Call Distribution: ACD Barge-In: Allow an extension to break into a call at another extension Billed Calls Only: Outgoing calls must be collect or 3rd-party billed Boss-secretary functions: The bosses phone and the secretarys phone are linked togheter PBX Busy Ring Call Back Call Center: Organizations using PBX technology Call Forwarding: Redirects all incoming calls towards other extension Call Monitoring Call Recording Call Return: Call Through: Service for savings on local interconnect charges Call Transfer: Hand a call off to another extension Call Trace: mark a call in system logs as requiring tracing or special attention Call Park: Place a call on hold and allow anyone to dial an extension and take the call Call Pickup: Take a parked call off hold KTSs A key system or key telephone system is a multiline telephone system typically used in small office environments. Key was a Bell System term of art for a manually operated switch, such as the line-buttons on the phones associated with such systems. A key system was originally distinguished from a private branch exchange (PBX) in that it allowed the station user to see and control the calls directly, manually, using lighted line buttons. Key systems are noted for their expandability and having individual line selection buttons for each connected phone line, however some features of a private branch exchange such as dialable intercoms may also commonly be present. Key systems can be built using three principal architectures: * Electromechanical shared-control * Electronic shared-control * Independent keysets The features of KTSs : 1. AUTOMATED ATTENDANT/VOICE ANNOUNCEMENT allows you to record a greeting (20 second maximum) that the incoming caller will hear after one ring. The caller may then select one of the options offered in the recording which will ring the extension of the desired party. A typical business recording might be Thank you for calling LeePhones.com. 2. AUTOMATIC FAX RECOGNITION when utilizing the AUTOMATED ATTENDANT, the system will recognize an incoming fax, and will automatically route to the fax machines extension. This feature saves you money by freeing up dedicated fax lines for voice or other uses. 3. AUTO ANSWER allows extensions with a key phone to receive internal intercom calls directly through their speaker phone without having to pickup the handset. 4. INTERCOM allows private communication between system users. IPS Key Telephones can dial another internal extension by simply pressing the button or key associated with the other extension . 5. DIRECT CALLER ACCESS TO EXTENSIONS when utilizing the AUTOMATED ATTENDANT, the incoming caller may, upon hearing the recorded greeting, connect to any desired extension by dialing the three digit extension number (100 to 107 on the IPS308, 100 to 115 on the IPS416) 6. SYSTEM PROGRAMMING VIA PC OR PHONE one of the most significant features of the IPS is the ability to program its features utilizing the IPS programming software. The softwares graphics, help menus, and cue cards make programming simple from start to finish. 7. CALLER ID (requires caller id option and an IPS Key Telephone) displays incoming caller name and number on all Key Telephones with display. 8. MUSIC ON HOLD a micro-mini input port on the IPS may be connected to any external music source (tape, CD, radio, or continuous play advertising message) to provide background sound for incoming callers while transferring to a desired extension or while remaining on hold. 9. ALARM CLOCK allows an extension to preset a specified time for a reminder ring or wake-up call. Task 4 (c) The cost of equipment and installation : There are user who will use these equipments The Chief Constable The assistant Chief Constable District Commander Deputy District Commander Sergeants and constables The police officers Detective Chief Inspector Detective Inspector The civilian staff Equipment Users with quantity Quantity Price (tk) Telephone instruments The Chief Constable 5 The assistant Chief Constable 3 District Commander 3 Deputy District Commander 3 Sergeants and constables 3 The police officers 2 Detective Chief Inspector 4 Detective Inspector 3 The civilian staff 2 28 70,000 Private Branch Exchanges (PBXs) The Chief Constable 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 2 1,58,482 Key Telephone Systems (KTSs) The Chief Constable 1 The assistant Chief Constable 1 District Commander 1 Deputy District Commander 1 Sergeants and constables 1 The police officers 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 Detective Inspector 1 The civilian staff 1 9 15,752 Automatic Call Distribution (ACD) systems The Chief Constable 1 The assistant Chief Constable 1 Chief Inspector 1 Detective Inspector 1 4 9252 Voice Processing Systems The Chief Constable 1 The assistant Chief Constable 1 District Commander 1 Deputy District Commander 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 Detective Inspector 1 6 1,72,000 Telephone Answering Machines The Chief Constable 1 The assistant Chief Constable 1 District Commander 1 Deputy District Commander 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 5 15,000 Telephone Call Information Loggers (CIL) The Chief Constable 1 The assistant Chief Constable 1 District Commander 1 The police officers 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 5 44,5000 Facsimile Machines The Chief Constable 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 2 5,500 Modems The Chief Constable 1 The assistant Chief Constable 1 District Commander 1 Deputy District Commander 1 Sergeants and constables 1 The police officers 1 Detective Chief Inspector 1 Detective Inspector 1 The civilian staff 1 9 36,000 Local Area Network (LAN) Bridges Just two bridges can be supported for all. 2 10,500 Local Area Network (LAN) Routers Just two routers can be supported for all. 2 45,00 Multiplexers 5 1,17,250 Total Cost : 754784.00 Task 4 (d) The cost of operating the system : Actually this system will be so much benefited. It needs so much high configuration system. The estimated cost for this system about 7,54,784.00 taka or more. Task 4 (e) I described both of two systems. But I will recommend to use PBXs. Because, it has so many advantages. The advantages of PBX are : 1. It is much easier to install and configure than a normal home line. Anyone that can handle a computer and is familiar with Windows features can install it. If you are familiar with networking computers is in good shape. You dont have to have someone come out to your location and install and hook things up. It is in your hands and not in someone elses. 2. It is easier to manage. IP PBX can be managed in a web based configuration interface or a GUI. This allows you to fine tune and maintain you phone system. Once again, if you are dealing with a regular home line you have to rely on a technician. 3. Significant cost savings when you use voip service providers. This is a big deal right now as we are all trying to cut back and save money. You can easily connect phone systems between branches and make free phone calls. 4. You can eliminate phone wiring. This is something that can bring a comfort to a business owner. Software phones can be installed directly onto the computer. You can now have much more control over adding and moving of extensions in your office. In new offices you can eliminate the extra ports completely. 5. Eliminate vendor lock in. This is exciting because you are now taking your phone services into your own hands and you dont have to make decisions based on one company. You can mix and match in order to gain the best savings. Task 5 Police Department Automation To, Police Department Headquarter Introduction: To develop a new automation system for Townsville Police Department I have investigate to find the best network topology among many topologies and recommend one topology that suits best for police department. Summary: In the above investigation I have tried to find the most convenient system for police department. Here are the key points that I found: Among various topologies Star Topology will be the best solution to setup the network for the police department. Investigating the best network medium for the network. Investigating for best internet connection and connection that may require operating the system smoothly. Investigating in details the methods of operating two-way voice communication, the legal requirements to setup two-way voice communication, costs, limitation of each system etc. The main equipment for the telephone system that would be installed, each systems features, cost of equipment installation and operating it. Strength of this report: The strengths of the report are: There are many networks type I have shown, we can easily determine which one is best for this type network Details breakdown Well organized and readable and understandable by non-technical people. Costs break-down of the system setup. Weekness of this report: There some weakness in my report and investigation. To collect data I have faced many difficulties. Also there is no system in my country that run this or similar type network. I could do well if could get some more time. Assumption: Costs Some network equipments etc. Conclusion When I was doing this assignment, I got many difficulties which I got solved from discussion with others and from my teacher help. I have tried to gather as much as detailed information.

Sixth Amendment :: essays research papers

The sixth amendment is that in all â€Å"criminal prosecutions, the accused have the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime that have been committed, which district would have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation: to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.† The sixth amendment also covers the guarantee of â€Å"adequate notice.† This means that the sixth amendment, â€Å"which is applicable to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, guarantees a criminal defendant a fundamental right to be clearly informed of the nature and cause of the charges against him. In order to determine whether a defendant has received constitutionally adequate notice, the court looks first to the information. The principal purpose of the information is to provide the defendant with a description of the charges against him in sufficient detail to enable him to prepare his defense.† The accused also has â€Å"a fundamental right to be clearly informed of the nature and cause of the charges in order to permit adequate preparation of a defense. Due process entitles an accused to know the charges against which he must defend in order to have a reasonable opportunity to prrepare and present a defense and not be taken by surprise at trial.† The Sixth Amendment, is also â€Å"applicable to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and guarantees a criminal defendant a fundamental right to be clearly informed of the nature and cause of the charges against him.

The Happiness of Others :: Happiness Essays

Written by Dr. Sam Vaknin Is there any necessary connection between our actions and the happiness of others? Disregarding for a moment the murkiness of the definitions of "actions" in philosophical literature - two types of answers were hitherto provided. Sentient Beings (referred to, in this essay, as "Humans" or "persons") seem either to limit each other - or to enhance each other's actions. Mutual limitation is, for instance, evident in game theory. It deals with decision outcomes when all the rational "players" are fully aware of both the outcomes of their actions and of what they prefer these outcomes to be. They are also fully informed about the other players: they know that they are rational, too, for instance. This, of course, is a very farfetched idealization. A state of unbounded information is nowhere and never to be found. Still, in most cases, the players settle down to one of the Nash equilibria solutions. Their actions are constrained by the existence of the others. The "Hidden Hand" of Adam Smith (which, among other things, benignly and optimally regulates the market and the price mechanisms) - is also a "mutually limiting" model. Numerous single participants strive to maximize their (economic and financial) outcomes - and end up merely optimizing them. The reason lies in the existence of others within the "market". Again, they are constrained by other people’s motivations, priorities ands, above all, actions. All the consequentialist theories of ethics deal with mutual enhancement. This is especially true of the Utilitarian variety. Acts (whether judged individually or in conformity to a set of rules) are moral, if their outcome increases utility (also known as happiness or pleasure). They are morally obligatory if they maximize utility and no alternative course of action can do so. Other versions talk about an "increase" in utility rather than its maximization. Still, the principle is simple: for an act to be judged "moral, ethical, virtuous, or good" - it must influence others in a way which will "enhance" and increase their happiness. The flaws in all the above answers are evident and have been explored at length in the literature. The assumptions are dubious (fully informed participants, rationality in decision making and in prioritizing the outcomes, etc.). All the answers are instrumental and quantitative: they strive to offer a moral measuring rod. An "increase" entails the measurement of two states: before and after the act. Moreover, it demands full knowledge of the world and a type of knowledge so intimate, so private - that it is not even sure that the players themselves have conscious access to it.

Nuclear Weopons testing Essay -- essays research papers

In their effort to create a bomb that would assure destruction of enemies, the world super powers of this century have created a legacy that could presumably destroy the entire world as we know it (Schull 6). During the course of the last fifty years, nuclear weapons have continually become an increasingly detrimental threat to our own health and environment. Consequently, laws have been proposed and bills have been signed to end this senseless build-up of arsenal and testing of havoc-causing atomic was instruments. Unfortunately, enforcing such rules worldwide has proven itself to be remarkably difficult and world allies have had to use extreme caution when dealing with any and all emerging threats. In the early days of nuclear weapons production, of course, not all safety hazards were fully appreciated,and possible threats to the environment went completely unrecognized. For this reason, we continued to tryout these deadly war tools without any major concern for our future. To be sure, it is understandable that in the race to produce the atomic bomb before Hitler, such considerations would come second. What is surprising is that this negligence should persist for 50 years thereafter, in spite of the growing awareness of the threats that technology and nuclear weapons production can pose. Even the challenge of cleaning up the results of four decades of nuclear weapons production from testing should be vast enough to tell us that testing must absolutely come to a complete stop around the world. Incredible resources will be needed to dispose of 2,700 tons of spent fuel, 10,500 hazardous substances, and 100 million gallons of high-level waste; to clean up 2.3 million acres of land; and to remediate 120 million square feet of buildings on 120 sites (Day 40-41). Four major tasks can be identified: to stabilize and maintain a large number of nuclear materials and facilities; to design, build, and operate a variety of treatment facilities to prepare waste for disposal and provide safe interim storage; to manage large amounts and varieties of wastes; and to work towards environmental restoration (Mosman 13). But nuclear weapons testing has had different effects all over the world. And the "not-in-my-backyard syndrome" has come to voice opinions everywhere.-- Nobo... ... Pie Chart Below : (Source : Mollison A/08) References Day Jr., Samuel. "The big lie.," Vol. 57, Progressive, 1 Jun 1993, pp. 40. Johnson, Douglas. "Atolls and atom bombs: France's colonial design.," Vol. 45, History Today, 1 Dec 1995, pp. 8. Mollison, Andrew. "Focus on Nuclear Testing." The Atlanta Constitution, 16 Aug 1995, pp. A/08. Mosman, Jan. "Ban nuclear tests.," Vol. 339, Economist, 4 May 1996, pp. 13. Ruben, Barbara, "How to really bomb a test.," Vol. 24, Environmental Action, 1 Jan 1993, pp. 8. Schull, William J. Effects of Atomic Radiation. (New York, NY: Free Press, 1995). Sternberg, Steve. "From war's holocaust, new radiation findings," The Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 20 Mar 1993, pp. F/01. Yamazaki, James N. Children of the Atomic Bomb. (Duke University Press, 1995). Nuclear Weopons testing Essay -- essays research papers In their effort to create a bomb that would assure destruction of enemies, the world super powers of this century have created a legacy that could presumably destroy the entire world as we know it (Schull 6). During the course of the last fifty years, nuclear weapons have continually become an increasingly detrimental threat to our own health and environment. Consequently, laws have been proposed and bills have been signed to end this senseless build-up of arsenal and testing of havoc-causing atomic was instruments. Unfortunately, enforcing such rules worldwide has proven itself to be remarkably difficult and world allies have had to use extreme caution when dealing with any and all emerging threats. In the early days of nuclear weapons production, of course, not all safety hazards were fully appreciated,and possible threats to the environment went completely unrecognized. For this reason, we continued to tryout these deadly war tools without any major concern for our future. To be sure, it is understandable that in the race to produce the atomic bomb before Hitler, such considerations would come second. What is surprising is that this negligence should persist for 50 years thereafter, in spite of the growing awareness of the threats that technology and nuclear weapons production can pose. Even the challenge of cleaning up the results of four decades of nuclear weapons production from testing should be vast enough to tell us that testing must absolutely come to a complete stop around the world. Incredible resources will be needed to dispose of 2,700 tons of spent fuel, 10,500 hazardous substances, and 100 million gallons of high-level waste; to clean up 2.3 million acres of land; and to remediate 120 million square feet of buildings on 120 sites (Day 40-41). Four major tasks can be identified: to stabilize and maintain a large number of nuclear materials and facilities; to design, build, and operate a variety of treatment facilities to prepare waste for disposal and provide safe interim storage; to manage large amounts and varieties of wastes; and to work towards environmental restoration (Mosman 13). But nuclear weapons testing has had different effects all over the world. And the "not-in-my-backyard syndrome" has come to voice opinions everywhere.-- Nobo... ... Pie Chart Below : (Source : Mollison A/08) References Day Jr., Samuel. "The big lie.," Vol. 57, Progressive, 1 Jun 1993, pp. 40. Johnson, Douglas. "Atolls and atom bombs: France's colonial design.," Vol. 45, History Today, 1 Dec 1995, pp. 8. Mollison, Andrew. "Focus on Nuclear Testing." The Atlanta Constitution, 16 Aug 1995, pp. A/08. Mosman, Jan. "Ban nuclear tests.," Vol. 339, Economist, 4 May 1996, pp. 13. Ruben, Barbara, "How to really bomb a test.," Vol. 24, Environmental Action, 1 Jan 1993, pp. 8. Schull, William J. Effects of Atomic Radiation. (New York, NY: Free Press, 1995). Sternberg, Steve. "From war's holocaust, new radiation findings," The Atlanta Journal and Constitution, 20 Mar 1993, pp. F/01. Yamazaki, James N. Children of the Atomic Bomb. (Duke University Press, 1995).

Performance Review Meeting Essay

What you have learnt from preparing for and carrying out the review I learnt how to set the meeting out, use the correct body language and how you should handle sensitive issues. It also helped me to understand motivation and focusing on strengths and weaknesses of employees and how to communicate effectively and stay in control of a situation. Overall I felt that the preparation leading up to the meeting helped in all of these areas. Studying the theories of Herzberg and Maslow helped me to understand that key areas of motivation and how to incorporate key management skills in order to get the best performance from an employee. Through watching performance management films also during the preparation process, this helped me to focus on my body language throughout the meeting and ensure that I am being perceived in a positive manner and agreeing targets on equal ground not by being too controlling of the situation and forcing decisions upon the individual. What you have learnt from the feedback you have received from your tutor and the individual whom you reviewed I have learnt that I need to ensure to take notes during the meeting. This is especially important when discussing performance plans and setting agreements. This would help me to remember after the meeting what was said so that I could write up a formal development plan for the employee but ensure that all information taken is accurate and that no details are missed. I need to also ensure that I talk slowly and clearly. It was fed back that I talked fairly quickly throughout the meeting, this may have been down to nerves because of the situation, however I need to ensure I remain focused on the task in hand and not what is going on around me to calm my nerves and ensure the employee understands fully the feedback that I am given. Overall I felt the meeting went well. I had good feedback and my body language was portrayed well. I felt I had prepared well and knew what to ask and how to approach the subject of the individual underperforming. I managed to negotiate clear targets for the individual of which we agreed by both parties and motivate the employee by also focusing on past high points as opposed to just focusing on the fact they have not met their targets. How this activity can help you at work I will take the knowledge which I have gained through completing this section into my workplace. I will be able to influence my capabilities through conducting meetings and speaking with employees on a daily basis.

The Organizational Behavior

Organizational behavior studies human behavior in the workplace and the interaction between people and the organization. When applied to understanding organizational culture, the set of understandings or meanings share by a group of people, and diversity, the differences that exist between individuals, organizational behavior helps a company gain competitive advantage. It does so by improving access to and retention of labor as well as worker productivity and company image. According to Vandeveer, Menefee and Sinclair (2006), organizational behavior is the systematic study of human behavior in the workplace, the interaction between people and the organization with the intent to understand and predict human behavior. Based on theories that behavior is generally predictable, there are differences between individuals, there are fundamental consistencies and that there are a set of rules in almost every organizational setting, organizational behavior explores relations in an attempt to determine causes and effects and draws conclusions based on scientific evidence. Two of the many areas of study include organizational culture and diversity. Organizational culture is a set of understandings or meanings shared by a group of people that are largely tacit among members and are clearly relevant and distinctive to the particular group which are also passed on to new members (Louis, 1980). There are three levels of organizational culture, behavior and artifacts, values, assumptions and beliefs defined by Schein (1988). Behavior and artifacts include expressions that can be seen, felt or heard, such as dress code, offices, awards and recognition and how people interact with each other. Values include things such as a company's mission statement, codes of conduct, and slogans. Assumptions and beliefs are tacit in nature; they are not visible and are not easily identified because they exist as unspoken rules. Underlying assumptions and beliefs grow out of values until they become taken for granted and drop out of awareness. The study of organizational culture is important because it affects productivity, performance, commitment, self confidence, and ethical behavior (Sathe, 1985). Diversity represents the differences that exist between individuals. It includes a broad range of things such as culture, race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomics, age, physical and mental abilities, sexual orientation, religion, language, appearance, personality, learning and thinking styles, communication and conflict styles, family status, geography, military status, education, life and work experiences, and functional responsibility in a given organization (What is diversity? ) Goals of studying diversity in organizations are to understand and take advantage of similarities and differences of all people in achieving a company's mission. With this knowledge, it may be possible to establish a process that allows diverse groups of people to maximize productivity, creativity, and enjoyment to reach their full potentials without being advantaged or disadvantaged by irrelevant or limiting factors. A Business-Higher Education Forum representative states, â€Å"Demographic trends compel business and higher education to make a conscious investment in the development of the talent and productivity of all citizens. † (Corporate, higher education leaders warn: U. S. ust focus on diversity or face decline in competitiveness, 2002) In addition to recruitment, diversity in the workplace can reduce lawsuits and increase marketing opportunities, creativity, and business image (Esty, Griffin, and Schorr-Hirsh, 1995). Ultimately, organizational behavior is a discipline that can be used to improve an organization. Organizational culture and diversity are two areas that prove the tremendous potential for applying organizational behavior. Labor supply, retention and performance and company image depend on successful cultural and diversity practices.